Culture as a Consequence: a Multilevel Multivariate Meta-analysis of the Effects of Individual and Country Characteristics on Work-related Cultural Values

Following Hofstede’s “Culture’s Consequences”, the management field has studied crosscultural issues intensely. However, this research has largely overlooked cultural variability within countries. The focus has been on national averages and one’s nationality has been frequently equated to one’s cultural values. This multilevel multivariate meta-analysis of 508 studies shifts the emphasis from culture’s consequences to culture as a consequence. It addresses the limitations of the mean-based approach by showing that individual and national cultures are shaped by a set of individual and country level factors, providing a basis for explaining the within and between country variations in culture.